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The 3D reconstruction algorithm of DIATOOL, with its higher-order Method of Moments-based implementation, reconstructs extreme near fields and surface currents on arbitrary 3D surfaces enclosing the antenna under test (AUT) from its measured radiated field. This is a valuable analysis and diagnostics tool for the antenna engineer to speed up the antenna prototyping cycle and identify errors in the manufactured AUTs, since the 3D reconstruction can solve a number of problems which traditional microwave holography cannot handle, namely: Accurate and detailed identification of array malfunctioning due to the enhanced spatial resolution of the reconstructed fields and currents Filtering of the scattering from support structures and feed network leakage A number of papers published over the past four years have shown these features in detail. At the same time it was observed that the spherical wave expansion (SWE) of the field radiated by the currents reconstructed by DIATOOL always provides a SWE power spectrum that looks noise-free. This phenomenon was observed for all the antennas on which the 3D reconstruction was applied, and it was explained as being an effect of the 3D reconstruction algorithm, which uses the a-priori information that all sources are contained inside the reconstruction surface. However, since real measured data were always used as input, it was not possible to prove that the SWE power spectrum of the reconstructed currents coincided with the one that would be obtained from noise-free measurements. The purpose of the present paper is thus to investigate in detail the noise filtering capabilities of the 3D reconstruction algorithm of DIATOOL. Models of several antennas, differing in size and type, were set up in GRASP with noise at different levels added to the radiated field. The noisy field was then given as input to DIATOOL and the SWE coefficients and the power spectra of the reconstructed currents were compared with the noise-free results coming from GRASP. Moreover, the effect of the varying noise level on the obtainable resolution was investigated.
Antenna alignment for near-field scanning was typically done at NIST with multiple instruments (theodolites, electronic levels, motor encoders) to align multiple stacked motion stages (linear, rotation). Many labs and systems are now using laser trackers to measure ranges and perform periodic compensation across the scan geometry. We are now seeing the use of laser trackers with 3D coordinate metrology to align ranges and take positional data. We present the alignment techniques and positional accuracy and uncertainty results of a mmWave antenna scanning system at 183 GHz. We are using six degree-of-freedom (6DOF) AUT and Probe measurements (x, y, z, yaw, pitch, roll) to align the AUT and then to align the scan geometry to the AUT. We are using a combination of 3DOF laser tracker measurements with a combined 6DOF laser tracker/photogrammetry sensor. We combine these measurements using coordinated spatial metrology to assess the quality of each motion stage in the system, tie the measurements of each individual alignment together, and to assess scan geometry errors for position and pointing. Finally we take in-situ 6DOF position measurements to assess the positional accuracy to allow for positional error correction in the final pattern analysis. The knowledge of the position and errors allow for the correction of position and alignment of the probe at every point in the scan geometry to within the repeatability of the motion components (~30 µm). The in-situ position knowledge will eventually allow us to correct to the uncertainty of the measurement (~15 µm). Our final results show positioning errors on the spherical scan surface have an average error of ~30 µm with peak excursions of ~100 µm. This robust positioning allows for accurate analysis of the RF system stability. Our results show that at 183 GHz, our RF repeatability with movement over 180° orientation change with a 600 mm offset to be less than ±0.05 dB and ±5°.
Performance requirements for compact ranges are typically specified as metrics describing the quiet zone's electromagnetic-field quality. The typical metrics are amplitude taper and ripple, phase variation, and cross polarization. Acceptance testing of compact ranges involves phase probing of the quiet zone to confirm that these metrics are within their specified limits. It is expected that if the metrics are met, then measurements of an antenna placed within that quiet zone will have acceptably low uncertainty. However, a literature search on the relationship of these parameters to resultant errors in antenna measurement yields limited published documentation on the subject. Various methods for determining the uncertainty in antenna measurements have been previously developed and presented for far-field and near-field antenna measurements. An uncertainty analysis for a compact range would include, as one of its terms, the quality of the field illuminating on the antenna of interest. In a compact range, the illumination is non-ideal in amplitude, phase and polarization. Error sources such as reflector surface inaccuracies, chamber-induced stray signals, reflector and edge treatment geometry, and instrumentation RF leakage, perturb the illumination from ideal.
The measurement community can use advanced simulation techniques to minimize both the time and financial investment necessary to design a custom compact antenna test range (CATR), while simultaneously optimizing performance. Traditionally, engineers have analyzed parabolic reflectors, a collimating device installed in CATRs, with approximate methods similar to ray-tracing, physical optics and physical theory of diffraction due to the practical limitations of the available resources. However, recent technological advances facilitate the rigorous analysis of electrically large parabolic reflectors. Computational resources (i.e. processors and memory) continue to offer improved performance at reduced cost. In addition, rigorous numerical solvers (i.e. the Multilevel Fast Multipole Method (MLFMM)), have become available in commercial software such as FEKO. Simulations employing these numerical solvers extend previous research by characterizing the quiet zone when operating offset-fed parabolic reflectors. The gain-transfer method is then emulated with an antenna under test (AUT). Several reflector edge treatments (e.g. serrated, blended-rolled) are considered to better understand performance trade-offs. Simulating an antenna measurement technique provides the insight necessary to identify and quantify potential error sources. The convergence between measured and simulated antenna performance characteristics can therefore be expedited with improved reliability.
?A wide band open boundary quad-ridge horn is investigated to provide multi-octave bandwidth operation for a dual reflector compact range. A commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) multi-octave RF feed was selected and optimized to the existing sub-reflectors. The selection requirements of the COTS multi-octave RF Feed are first determined from a geometric optic (GO) analysis method. These results are used to provide an upper bound of the feed directivity affecting target quiet zone (QZ) performance. Physical Optic (PO) and Physical Theory of Diffraction (PTD) analysis that includes the reflectors serrations are then performed to derive the feed requirements to best meet the QZ specifications. This paper presents the use of COTS multi-band RF feed in a compact range that is properly optimized to the sub-reflectors providing frequency bandwidth to meet QZ performance specifications. Comparisons of these analysis to the QZ field probe measurements of the compact range QZ amplitude ripple phase and scan size comparisons are made to verify the compact range COTS RF feed selection. A multi-octave band RF feed in a compact range application enables highly accurate and efficient test measurement capability for characterization of active arrays over a wide bandwidth in real time.
Recent enhancements in military telecommunication systems for monitoring and tracking in low VHF range (30-80MHz) imply the use of specific antenna measurement facilities to characterize either the antenna alone or the antenna mounted on a supporting structure which can be heavy and bulky. The indoor Near-Field approach shows benefits in terms of compactness. However this approach involves issues due to high levels of reflectivity of the anechoic chamber, the antenna under test positioner and the measurement probe structure at these larges wavelengths. Studies and simulations of each contribution have been performed in a previous paper. The proposed paper focuses on the improvement of measurement results using post-processing techniques and associated uncertainty analysis of the mono-probe near-field system at the CNES. First the new 50-400 MHz dual polarized probe and the measurement system are briefly presented. Then the estimation of each error term is detailed providing a global error budget in order to appreciate the benefit of post-processing technique. All the considered errors terms are all of those included in the well-known 18 NIST terms. Each of them is evaluated using the most appropriated approaches (specific measurement, simulation).
The outdoor range at the U. S. Army’s Electronic Proving Ground Antenna Test Facility features a large reflector in order to facilitate radar cross-section and antenna performance evaluation with large targets. Constructed during the late 1980s and early 1990s, this range features a 67-foot diameter reflector to satisfy quiet zone size specifications. The reflector is composed of 138 individual panels with nominal panel separation of 0.06 inches. This research investigates the impact of these gaps between reflector panels on the field received at the quiet zone. GTRI’s physical optics computational code was used to analyze the existing range design at the frequencies of interest, from C- through Ka-band, taking into account edge diffraction from the panels. In research presented at AMTA 2013, a range modification of the ground between the range source antenna and the reflector was performed to minimize ground reflections. This range modification has been incorporated with current research to provide quiet zone field analysis which includes reflector gaps as well as ground reflections.
A popular method for microwave characterization of materials is the free-space focused beam technique, which uses lenses or shaped reflectors to focus energy onto a confined region of a material specimen. In the 2-18 GHz band, 60 cm diameter lenses are typically spaced 30 to 90 cm from the specimen under test to form a Gaussian focused beam with plane-wave like characteristics at the focal point. This method has proved popular because of its accuracy and flexibility. Another free-space measurement technique that has been employed by some is the use of dielectrically loaded antennas that are placed in close proximity to a specimen. In this alternate technique, the dielectrically loaded antennas are smaller than lenses, making the hardware more compact and lower cost, however this is done at the expense of potentially reduced accuracy. This paper directly compares a standard laboratory focused beam system to a measurement system based on some recently developed RF spot probes. The spot probes are specially designed antennas that are encapsulated in a dielectric and optimized to provide a small illumination spot 3 to 8 cm in front of the probe. Experimental measurements of several dielectric, magnetic, and resistive specimens were measured by both systems for direct comparison. With these data, uncertainty analysis comparisons were made for both fixtures to establish measurement limits and capability differences between the two methods. Understanding these uncertainties and measurement limits are key to implementing compact spot probes in a manufacturing setting for quality assurance purposes.
The development of the Configurable Robotic Millimeter-Wave Antenna facility (CROMMA) by the antenna metrology lab at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder Colorado has brought together several important aspects of 6-degree-of-freedom robotic motion, positioning and spatial metrology useful for high frequency antenna characterization. In particular, the ability to define a unified coordinated metrology space, which includes all the motion components of the system is at the heart of this facility. We present the details of integrating robotics that have well defined kinematic models, advanced spatial metrology techniques, and millimeter wave components which make up the CROMMA facility. From this, a high level of precision, accuracy, and traceability that is requisite for performing high frequency near-field antenna pattern measurements can be achieved. Emphasis is placed on the ability to precisely characterize and model the movement patterns of the robot positioners, and probe and test antenna apertures using state-of-the-art full 6-degree-of-freedom spatial metrology, while being able to manipulate this information in a unified measurement space. The advantages of using a unified coordinated metrology space as they pertain to complex antenna alignments, scan geometry, repeatability analysis, traceability, and uncertainty analysis will be discussed. In addition we will also discuss how the high level of positioning, and orientation knowledge obtainable with the CROMMA facility can enable the implementation of sophisticated near-field position correction algorithms and precisely configurable scan geometries.
In the near future, we will begin adorning our bodies with wearable devices, and the ubiquitous computing society will dawn. Personal area network (PAN), which uses the human body as a transmission channel, has been proposed by T. G. Zimmerman as a solution for networking these personal devices. The social concern regarding PAN's use for biomedical engineering has been growing due to Japan's low birthrate and longevity. ?Studies have focused on developing PAN applications, such as real-time healthcare sensing devices, following the trend of medicine-engineering cooperation. Since applications are still in their initial phase, a trial-and-error method is applied to device development. There are still many opaque areas regarding a transmission mechanism. ?So far, we have clarified that the electromagnetic wave generated from a 10 MHz PAN device propagates through the surface of the human body. If the frequency band of the surface wave, instead of radiation, becomes clear in air, it excels in privacy, and we can expect lower energy consumption. Transmission efficiency can also be expected to increase due to the adoption of the electrode structure, which excites a surface wave. ?In this paper, we clarify the propagation characteristics of the surface wave and advantageous frequency band for PAN. First, we constructed an experimental device like the Fabry-Perot resonator using the periodic structure of Yagi-Uda antenna directors with reflectors in both ends for the measurement of surface waves. Next, "solid phantom," which is equivalent to biological tissue, was installed in the device. Moreover, in order to demonstrate measurement validity, we conducted numerical analysis using the finite-difference time-domain method.
Numerical modeling within Computational Electromagnetics (CEM) solvers is an important engineering tool for supporting the evaluation and optimization of antenna placement on larger complex platforms. While measurements are still required for final validation due to the conclusiveness and high reliability of measured data, numerical modeling is increasingly used in the initial stages of antenna placement investigation, optimization and to ensure that final testing, often a complex procedure, has a positive outcome. In some cases, the full-wave representation of the source antenna is unavailable to the designer in the format required by the CEM solver. This is often the case if the source antenna is from a third party. To overcome this problem, an equivalent computational model of the antenna must be constructed, bearing in mind that CEM solvers require an accurate source representation to achieve reliable results. Equivalent sources or currents implemented in the commercial tool INSIGHT have been adopted as an efficient diagnostics and echo reduction tool in general antenna measurement scenarios as discussed in [1-6]. The INSIGHT processing of measured antenna data was initially developed as a numerical representation of antennas in complex environment analysis for CEM solvers [7-10]. The main obstacle for widespread use of this method was the handling of the proprietary format of the equivalent currents. Commercial CEM providers are currently investigating and implementing domain decomposition techniques based on the near field description of the local domain. This development also provides a direct link between INSIGHT processing of measured antenna data and numerical simulation opening a range of interesting applications for using measured antennas in commercial numerical simulation tools as discussed in [11-12]. In flush-mounted antenna applications the measurement and subsequent INSIGHT processing has to be carefully performed. This paper discusses guidelines for the correct source antenna measurement, post processing and successive link to the commercial numerical tools for simulation. Application examples of the link using CST STUDIO SUITE® software [14-17] with flush mounted antennas and comparison with measurements of the full structure will be provided. [1] http://www.satimo.com/software/insight [2] J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi. Improved accuracy source reconstruction on arbitrary 3-D surfaces. Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, IEEE, 8:1046–1049, 2009. [3] J. L. A. Quijano, G. Vecchi, L. Li, M. Sabbadini, L. Scialacqua, B. Bencivenga, F. Mioc, L. J. Foged "3D spatial filtering applications in spherical near field antenna measurements", AMTA 2010 Symposium, October, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. [4] L. Scialacqua, F. Saccardi, L. J. Foged, J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi, M. Sabbadini, “Practical Application of the Equivalent Source Method as an Antenna Diagnostics Tool”, AMTA Symposium, October 2011, Englewood, Colorado, USA [5] J. L. Araque Quijano, L. Scialacqua, J. Zackrisson, L. J. Foged, M. Sabbadini, G. Vecchi “Suppression of undesired radiated fields based on equivalent currents reconstruction from measured data”, IEEE Antenna and wireless propagation letters, vol. 10, 2011 p314-317. [6] L. J. Foged, L. Scialacqua, F. Mioc,F. Saccardi, P. O. Iversen, L. Shmidov, R. Braun, J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi" Echo Suppresion by Spatial Filtering Techniques in Advanced Planar and Spherical NF Antenna Measurements ", AMTA Symposium, October 2012, Seattle, Washington, USA [7] E. Di Giampaolo, F. Mioc, M. Sabbadini, F. Bardati, G. Marrocco, J. Monclard , L. Foged, “Numerical modeling using fast antenna measurements”, 28th ESA Antenna Workshop on Space Antenna Systems and Technologies, June 2005 [8] L. J. Foged, F. Mioc, B. Bencivenga, E. Di Giampaolo, M. Sabbadini “High frequency numerical modeling using measured sources”, IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium, July 9-14, 2006. [9] F. Mioc, J. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi, E. Martini, F. Milani, R. Guidi, L. J. Foged, M. Sabbadini, “Source Modelling and Pattern Enhancement for Antenna Farm Analysis”, 30th ESA Antenna Workshop on Antennas for Earth Observation, Science, Telecommunication and Navigation Space Missions, May 2008 ESA/ESTEC Noordwijk, The Netherlands [10] L. J. Foged, B. Bencivenga, F. Saccardi, L. Scialacqua, F. Mioc, G. Arcidiacono, M. Sabbadini, S. Filippone, E. di Giampaolo, “Characterisation of small Antennas on Electrically Large Structures using Measured Sources and Advanced Numerical Modelling”, 35th Annual Symposium of the Antenna Measurement Techniques Association, AMTA, October 2013, Columbus, Ohio, USA [11] L. J. Foged, L. Scialacqua, F. Saccardi, F. Mioc, D. Tallini, E. Leroux, U. Becker, J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi, “Bringing Numerical Simulation and Antenna Measurements Together”, 8th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation, EuCAP, April 2014, Den Haag, Netherlands [12] L. J. Foged, L. Scialacqua, F. Saccardi, F. Mioc, D. Tallini, E. Leroux, U. Becker, J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi “Innovative Representation of Antenna Measured Sources for Numerical Simulations”, IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation and USNC/URSI, July 2014, Memphis, Tennese, USA [13] L. J. Foged, B. Bencivenga, F. Saccardi, L. Scialacqua, F. Mioc, G. Arcidiacono, M. Sabbadini, S. Filippone, E. di Giampaolo, “Characterisation of small Antennas on Electrically Large Structures using Measured Sources and Advanced Numerical Modelling”, 35th Annual Symposium of the Antenna Measurement Techniques Association, AMTA, October 2013, Columbus, Ohio, USA [14] CST STUDIO SUITE™, CST AG, Germany, www.cst.com [15] T. Weiland: "RF & Microwave Simulators - From Component to System Design" Proceedings of the European Microwave Week (EUMW 2003), München, Oktober 2003, Vol. 2, pp. 591 - 596. [16] B. Krietenstein, R. Schuhmann, P. Thoma, T. Weiland: "The Perfect Boundary Approximation Technique facing the big challenge of High Precision Field Computation" Proc. of the XIX International Linear Accelerator Conference (LINAC 98), Chicago, USA, 1998, pp. 860-862. [17] D. Reinecke, P. Thoma, T. Weiland: "Treatment of thin, arbitrary curved PEC sheets with FDTD" IEEE Antennas and Propagation, Salt Lake City, USA, 2000, p. 26.
In this paper the inverse-source technique or source reconstruction technique has been applied as diagnostic tool to determine the complex excitation at sub array and single element level of a measured array antenna [1-5]. The inverse-source technique, implemented in the commercially available tool “INSIGHT” [5], allows to compute equivalent electric and magnetic currents providing exclusive diagnostic information about the measured antenna. By additional processing of the equivalent currents the user can gain insight to the realized excitation law at single element and sub-array level to identify possible errors. The array investigated in this paper is intended as part of the European Navigation System GALILEO and is a pre-development model flying on the In-Orbit Validation Element the GIOVE-B satellite. The antenna, developed by EADS-CASA Espacio, consists of 42 patch elements, divided into six sectors and is fed by a two level beam forming network (BFN). The BFN provide complex excitation coefficients of each array element to obtain the desired iso-flux shaped beam pattern [6-7]. The measurements have been performed in the new hybrid (Near Field and Compact Range) facility in the ESTEC CPTR as part of the installation and validation procedure [8]. The investigation has been performed without any prior information of the array and intended excitation. The input data for the analysis is the measured spherical NF data and the array topology and reference coordinate system. References [1] J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi. Improved accuracy source reconstruction on arbitrary 3-D surfaces. Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, IEEE, 8:1046–1049, 2009. [2] L. Scialacqua, F. Saccardi, L. J. Foged, J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi, M. Sabbadini, “Practical Application of the Equivalent Source Method as an Antenna Diagnostics Tool”, AMTA Symposium, October 2011, Englewood, Colorado, USA [3] J. L. Araque Quijano, L. Scialacqua, J. Zackrisson, L. J. Foged, M. Sabbadini, G. Vecchi “Suppression of undesired radiated fields based on equivalent currents reconstruction from measured data”, IEEE Antenna and wireless propagation letters, vol. 10, 2011 p314-317. [4] L. J. Foged, L. Scialacqua, F. Mioc,F. Saccardi, P. O. Iversen, L. Shmidov, R. Braun, J. L. Araque Quijano, G. Vecchi " Echo Suppresion by Spatial Filtering Techniques in Advanced Planar and Spherical NF Antenna Measurements ", AMTA Symposium, October 2012, Seattle, Washington, USA [5] http://www.satimo.com/software/insight [6] A. Montesano, F. Monjas, L.E. Cuesta, A. Olea, “GALILEO System Navigation Antenna for Global Positioning”, 28th ESA Antenna Workshop on Space [7] L.S. Drioli, C. Mangenot, “Microwave holography as a diagnostic tools: an application to the galileo navigation antenna”, 30th Annual Antenna Measurement Techniques Association Symposium, AMTA 2008, Boston, Massachusetts November 2008 [8] S. Burgos, M. Boumans, P. O. Iversen, C. Veiglhuber, U. Wagner, P. Miller, “Hybrid test range in the ESTEC compact payload test range”, 35th ESA Antenna Workshop on Antenna and Free Space RF Measurements ESA/ESTEC, The Netherlands, September 2013
Fieldprobing is often the tool of choice for validating the characteristics of a quiet zone (QZ). Some of the main disadvantageous of fieldprobing are the expense and stability of the setup, e.g. a stable non-reflective linear axis has to be build. Furthermore regular 1-dimensional fieldprobing is not very suited for detecting extraneous reflections in the measurement chamber. Former work has shown that using a second linear axis below the AUT positioner (which is sometimes present for Antenna Pattern Comparison (APC) measurements) can improve the detection, but further increases the cost factor. Using Spherical Near-Field scanning [FRANCIS,WITTMANN,BLACK,JOY] most of these disadvantageous are solved, only a rather simple, although sturdy, beam is built on top of the roll-over-azimuth positioner, placing the antenna on a sphere surrounding the QZ. Using only one measurement, for each frequency, a complete analysis of the measurement chamber can be performed. It can be used for both looking inside the QZ, i.e. chamber reflectivity and outside on extraneous reflections. This paper will show both actual spherical near-field and fieldprobing measurements of the CATR at the Institute of High Frequency Technology (IHF) of the RWTH Aachen, and compare both results.
Abstract- Quality control is critical for all industrial processes, but often times defect detection is labor intensive. A novel approach to industrial defect detection is to use a random noise radar (RNR), coupled with Radio Frequency "Distinctive Native Attributes (RF-DNA)" fingerprinting processing algorithms to non-destructively interrogate microwave devices and classify defective units from properly functioning units. Example applications include assembly line inspection of automotive collision avoidance systems, wireless or cellular antenna defect detection during manufacture, and phased array element defect detection prior to RF system assembly. The RNR is uniquely suitable since it uses an Ultra Wideband noise waveform as an active interrogation method that will not cause destructive damage to microwave components. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that multiple RNRs can operate simultaneously in close proximity, allowing for significant parallelization of defect detection systems resulting in increased process throughput. Using this method, 100% sampling for quality control may be attainable in many cases. RF-DNA has previously demonstrated “serial number” discrimination of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexed (OFDM), Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) network signals, GSM, WiMAX signals and others with classification accuracies above 80% using Multiple Discriminant Analysis and Generalized Relevance Learning Vector Quantification classification algorithms. Those cases all involved discrimination of passive emissions. This approach proposes to couple the classification successes of the RF-DNA fingerprinting with a non-destructive active interrogation waveform.
Reverberation chambers (RCs) are important measurement tools, and thus it is often required to simulate their behaviour numerically. However, due to their special characteristics, especially for high Q factors, they are often considered too challenging for application of standard numerical software. In particular, a recent publication [1] listed the perceived state-of-the-art in integral equation modelling of RCs, and identified numerous unsolved problems. The present paper illustrates that using Higher-Order (HO) basis functions in the integral equation discretization can allow the numerical analysis of relatively large RCs to be performed with limited computer resources. Applying a dedicated HO Multi-level Fast Multipole Method scheme allows even larger problems to be solved. After a discussion and brief review of existing methods for RC modelling, we will turn to a description of the key features of HO basis functions and their related MLFMM implementation, focusing on how they allow surpassing some of the challenges faced by lower-order discretizations. Then, several RC test-cases are analyzed, drawing comparisons to other results from the relevant litterature. The conclusion is that with use of HO basis functions and a thorough MLFMM implementation, some of the challenges identified in [1] can be overcome. [1] H. Zhao, “MLFMM-Accelerated Integral-Equation Modeling of Reverberation Chambers,” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, vol. 55, no. 5, pp. 299–307, Oct. 2013.
After decades of international launches and varying space expeditions the low Earth orbit (LEO) has become littered with man-made objects and debris. With over 22,000 objects larger than a softball, and hundreds of thousands in smaller size existing, remediation efforts must take place to ensure the continuation of both collision free space flight and orbits. While smaller objects are difficult to track, and would consume more resources, the larger bodied debris offer a means to collect greater volumes of orbital debris clutter with less operations. In an effort to assist in the architectural design of microwave remote sensors, for the detection, tracking and identification of the large tumbling bodies, apriori knowledge of their relevant electromagnetic scattering parameters is essential. This paper work focus on the scattering phenomenology from possible large bodied orbital debris, such as rocket bodies, whose geometries are publically available. The results will strengthen existing data sets, Radar architectures, required signal processing, and even guidance navigation and control (GNC) routines that would be supported by resultant sensor information. Data products developed from commercially available electromagnetic simulation software will be presented, and the induced phenomenological scattering differences from the geometric variations between the possible targets will also be discussed.
I. INTRUDUCTION In the heating process of microwave absorbers under incident electromagnetic waves, two disciplines of physics are intertwined, i.e., electromagnetic waves behavior governed by Maxwell’s equations and heat transfer process dictated by laws of thermodynamics. The power density in the absorbers due to the electromagnetic .eld is given by p= s|E|2 =2po0 o ' f|E|2 (1) where, E is the total electric .eld (V/m) in the material, s is electrical conductivity of the material (S/m), o0 is the free space permittivity (8.854 × 10-12 F/m), o' is the imaginary part of the relative dielectric constant, and f is the frequency in Hz. This is point form of the Joule’s law, and is well understood by RF engineers. The EM behavior of the polyurethane absorbers can be numerically computed. The EM .eld acts as the heating source, and its distribution in the absorber can provide a good indication on the locations of hot spots. Polyurethane foam is an excellent insulator, so the conductive heat loss may be minimal. The heat exchanges can be reasonably described by radiation and convection transfers. Radiation takes place in the form of EM wave, mainly in the infrared region. The net power transferred from a body to the surroundings is described by Stefan-Boltzmann’s law [1], prad = osA(T4 -T04 ) (2) where A is the surface area, T is the surface temperature of the radiation body in K, and T0 is the ambient temperature in K. Unfortunately, the conventional symbols used in heat transfer s and o are not the same as those in Eq. (1). s here is the emissivity or emission coef.cient, and is de.ned as the ratio of the actual radiation emitted and the radiation that would be from a black body. o in Eq. (2) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10-8 W/m2 K4 ). The context in the paper should make it clear which symbols the authors are referring to. Otherwise, we will make explicit references. The convective heat transfer is due to the motion of air surrounding the absorbers. Two forms can take place, naturally or by forced air. The relationship is described by Newton’s law of cooling [1]: pconv = hA(T -T0 ) (3) where h is the convection heat transfer coef.cient in (W/m-2 K-1 ). h is often treated as a constant, although it can be a function of the temperature. Eq. (3) assumes that the ambient air is abundant, and is taken to be constant. This is a reasonable assumption, because the heating is typically con.ned to a small localized area in a relatively large anechoic chamber. Combining the two mechanisms of heat transfer, the total heat loss is given by p= osA(T4 -T4 )+ hA(T -T0 ) (4) 0 It is possible to solve for the temperatures from coupled Maxwell’s and heat transfer equations. Realistic results require accurate electrical and thermal properties of the materials. It is often a non-trivial process to obtain the material properties in and of itself. Careful validation is warranted before we can have full con.dence in the results. In this paper, we adopt a measurement approach instead. We conduct a series of experiments to measure the temperature both on the surface of the absorbers using an infrared imaging camera, and internally using thermocouple probes inserted into the absorbers. Temperature pro.les versus applied E .eld are experimentally established. From the measured data, we curve .t to Eq. (4) or other mathematical functions. These functions are useful to calculate results at other .eld levels, e.g., extrapolating to a higher .eld where measurement results cannot be readily obtained. II. FIELD DISTRIBUTION INSIDE THE ABSORBERS Numerical analysis was performed using Ansys HFSS, a commercially available Finite Elements software package. As it was described in [2], symmetry is taken advantage of, so only one quarter of the pyramidal absorber is solved. The quarter pyramid is located inside a square cross section prism that bounds the computational domain. The structure is fed using a port located on the top of the geometry and the side boundaries of the domain are set as perfect electric conductor (PEC) or perfect magnetic conductor (PMC). The base is modeled as PEC. This is exactly the same approach taken in [2]. The structure of a CRV-23PCL-4 is analyzed at 12.4 GHz, the same frequency as used in the measurements. The resulting .eld is extracted at one plane. The plane is one of the two orthogonal planes that cut the pyramid in 4 sections. Fig. 1 shows the .eld distribution at 12.4 GHz. The curvature of the absorber pro.le has been added for clarity. The results are an approximation. The permittivity of the material is assumed to be fairly constant from 6 GHz to 12 GHz. The purpose of the numerical analysis is to check the expected .eld distribution in the pyramid, which we can use to compare with the infrared (IR) images of the absorbers taken during the measurements. Fig. 1. Electric Field distribution at 12.4 GHz The .eld distribution data shows that most of the .eld exists on the upper third of the pyramid. It also shows that there is a region of high .eld existing in the valleys between the pyramids. The surface temperature pro.le from the IR pictures shows that this is an real phenomena. On the other hand, the .eld is higher at the very tip of the absorber. Measurements from the IR images seem to contradict this result. This can be explained. Since the tip is smaller, it cools faster to the surrounding ambient temperature. III. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND DATA Experiments were performed on ETS-Lindgren CRV-23PCL-8, and CRV-23PCL-4 absorbers at 12.4 GHz. Both types are 23” long from tips to bases. A piece has a base size of 2’ × 2’. A CRV-23PCL-8 piece consists of 8×8=64 pyramids, whereas a CRV-23PCL-4 piece consists of 4×4=16 pyramids. The two types are designed to have similar RF performances, but the CRV-23PCL-8 is made of slender pyramids to facilitate better heat transfers to the surroundings [2]. The absorbers are mounted on a particle board with metallic backings, and are placed in front a Ku band horn antenna with a circular aperture (the gain is approximately 20 dBi). A 300W ampli.er is used, and the power to the antenna is monitored through a 40 dB directional coupler connected to a power meter. The test setup is shown in Fig. 2. The ambient temperature is at 23.C. Fig. 2. Test setup using a conical horn antenna to illuminate the absorbers As a .rst step, a 200 V/m .eld is generated by leveling to a calibrated electric .eld probe. The distance from the probe to the antenna is 30”. At this distance, near .eld coupling is assumed neglegible, and the incident wave uniform (numerical simulation also validated these assumptions). The power needed to generate 200 V/m .eld is recorded. Next, the .eld probe is replaced with the absorbers under test. The tips of the absorbers are placed at the same distance (30”) from the antenna. Other .eld strengths can be leveled by scaling from the power for 200 V/m. A. Surface Temperature Figs. 3 and 4 show two examples of the infrared images taken after the temperature reached equilibrium under a constant 700 V/m CW at f=12.4 GHz for the two types of absorbers described earlier. There is no forced air.ow during the measurement. Table 1 summarizes the resulting temperatures on the absorber surfaces at different .eld levels. Tests were performed on two .nishes of otherwise identical CRV-23PCL-8 absorbers, i.e., fully covered with rubberized paint, or with latex paint. The data indicates that the paint has minimal effects on absorber temperatures. Table 1 also lists data for the wider CRV-23PCL-4 absorbers (with latex paint). B. Internal Temperature of the Absorber recorded by Thermocouples Three thermocouples are inserted in the CRV-23PCL-8 which are painted with rubberized coating. They are inserted at distances of 4”, 6”, and 8” from the tip of the pyramid, as illustrated in Fig. 5. Fig. 6 shows the temperatures measured by the three sensors. The temperatures at 8” from the tip are consistently higher than at other locations. There is a gap in the data at 700 V/m because RF power was turned off brie.y. Internal temperature reached 115 .C under 1.7 kW/m2 Fig. 3. Infrared camera image for incident electric .eld of 700 V/m. The absorber is the slender CRV-23PCL-8. Fig. 4. Infrared camera image for incident electric .eld of 700 V/m. The absorber is the wider CRV-23PCL-4. (800 V/m). Since the maximum allowed temperature for the polyurethane foam material is 125 .C, the incident power density is recommended to stay less than 1.7 kW/m2 for CRV-23PCL-8 absorbers mounted vertically and with natural convection in a 23.C room. After the temperature reached equilibrium under 800 V/m, additional air.ow was introduced by turning on a 6” diameter fan at 45” in front of the absorbers. The air.ow rate was measured to be approximately 80 ft/min at this distance. Note that this is a rather moderate air.ow, which can arise naturally from air-conditioning vents in a chamber. As shown in Fig. 6, the internal temperature quickly dropped to 102.C from 115.C. TABLE I MAXIMUM SURFACE TEMPERATURE RECORDED BY THE IR CAMERA (AT EQUILIBRIUM). T0 =23. C. E Power CRV-23PCL-8 CRV-23PCL-8 CRV-23PCL-4 (V/m) Density rubberized latex (. C) rubberized (kW/m2 ) (. C) (. C) 200 0.11 24 300 0.24 28 360 0.34 30 400 0.42 35 36 43 500 0.66 41 50 600 0.95 54 67 700 1.30 63 82
Phase variation = +/-10 deg. 18 to 40 GHz Phase variation = +/-20 deg. 40 to 110 GHz Cross Polarization = -30 dB III. MAXIMUM AVAILABLE SPACE Consistency of performance across a waveguide band levies demands on compact range feeds. Because of the constraint of the room size, the design starts with determining the maximum space available for the This paper addresses a recent compact range development by MI reflector. The next step will be to determine the combination of Technologies that achieves desired extended low frequency and reflector body and edge treatment size within that space to millimeter wave performance (1 to 110GHz) while maintaining a deliver the desired performance. To determine the space cost effective reflector size and a small range footprint. The paper available for the reflector a chamber layout analysis is will explore the conventional rule-of-thumb relationships performed. Appropriate absorber is selected and, allowing for between feed, reflector, edge treatments and range geometries an air gap of at least 2 wavelengths at the lowest desired while contrasting them to the resultant design. The paper will frequency between the absorber and the reflector, and allowing highlight an impressive new family of compact range feeds and advancements in cost effectively achieving a superior reflector height for the compact range feed positioner yields the surface. allowable reflector dimensions to be 194 inches high and 222 inches wide as shown in Table 2. The combination of reflector
Abstract— In this study we analyze a canonical outdoor antenna measurement environment from automotive industry’s perspective, with the goal of identifying relevant parameters related to range design and analysis. Specifically, we examine to what extent simple ray tracing models are able to describe range behavior. Comparisons were made between simple ray tracing models, free space scenario, and full wave calculations were presented. This is further put into context by incorporating common environmental factors into the analysis, such as asphalt driveway, grass, antenna supporting structure, and control room’s nearby presence. We examine the differences between outcomes generated by different models, while taking into account common frequency bands of interest for the automotive industry, including FM, RKE, DAB, TV, and higher frequency applications. Field distribution around AUT location is profiled and presented for multiple scenarios, as well as for different transmit/reference antennas.